dokeo kago grapho soi kratistos Theophilos

Wednesday, January 24, 2007

Double Hapax Legomena

A list of hapax legomena appearing in the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles may be interesting but probably not of any value. Plummer and his generation included lists in their commentaries. However a list of double hapax legomena would not only be interesting but also of great value. This would be a list of Greek words that appear only in the writings of Luke and only in one book of the Septuagint. I have included in my definition and list, words that actually appear more than once in the writings of Luke or in a single book of the Septuagint. I am including the actual Greek words on my blog but not all at once because creating all these links is too time-consuming. I have deleted several hapax until I can check other resources.

I am creating more lists for my use and will from time to time share my findings on my blog. As noted in Ezra as a Source for Luke, the use of a rare word may be intended as an allusion to the book in which that rare word appears. The allusion is stronger if there are other clues to support the inference that the author intends an allusion.

Luke today would be doing and creating cross word puzzles and winning scrapple games using his knowledge of rare words. In his day I suspect he made mental note of rare words he could use in his writings. I have often wondered if Luke had access to and use of a Greek primer as part of his education and what his Greek primer contained. Could it have been a book of the Septuagint?

Gospel of Luke (27 from 14 books)

1000 βολήν a shot; Lk 22:41; Genesis 21:16

3790 ὀφρύας ὀφρύς the brow of a hill; Lev 14:9; Lk 4:29

598 ἀποθλίβω to squeeze; Lk 8:45; Num 22:25

2991 λαξευτός a dressed stone, chiseled; Lk 23:53; Dt 4:49

2159 εὐτόνως intensely; Lk 23:10; Act 18:28; Jos 6:8

2766 κέραμος potter’s clay, ceramic; Lk 5:19; 2Sam 17:28

5073 Σαβακαθα fourfold; Lk 19:8; 2Sa 12:6

3593 travel; Lk 10:33; 1Ki 6:12

4231 to be engaged in a matter; Lk 19:13; 1Ki 9:19

1615 to complete; 2Ch 4:5; Lk 14:29,30

943 a bath (a term of measurement); Ezra 7:22 and Luke 16:6

1160 expense, cost; Ezra 6:4, 8; Lk 14:28

1406 drachma; Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Luke 15:8, 9

2069 evening, figuratively means west; Ezra 3:3;
Luke 24:29; Acts 4:3; 28:28

3589.3 eighty-four; Lk 2:37; Neh 11:18

4923 a group; Lk 2:44; Neh 7:5,64

327 to search out; Lk 2:44; Act 11:25; Job 3:4; 10:6

398 to appear, Lk 19:11; Act 21:3; Job

905 a bag, money bag: Lk 10:4; 12:33; 22:35, 36; Job 14:7

1286 to shake violently; Lk 3:14; Job 4:14

1455 to lie in wait; Lk 20:20; Job 19:12; 31:9; see also 1748

3721 day break; Lk 24:22; Job 29:7

3869 sit beside; Lk 10:39; Job 2:13

4132 a full tide; Lk 6:48; Job 40:23

437 to agree mutually; Lk 2:38; Ps 79:13

1871 to beg; Luke 16:3; Ps. 109.10

4884 to seize by force; Lk 8:29; Act; Pr 6:25

4393 to bring forth; Lk 6:45; Pr 10:13

309 recovery of sight; Lk 4:18; Is 61:1

560 despair; Is 29:19; Lk 6:35

5400 a fearful thing; Lk 21:11; Is 19:17

4233 officer, exactor of fine; Lk 12:58; Is 3:12

4626 to dig; Lk 6:48; 13:8; 16:3; Is 5:6

2528 to arm; Lk 11:21; Jer 46:9

2623 to imprison; Lk 3:20; Act 26:10; Jer 32:3

2628 to follow closely after; Lk 23:55; Act 16:17; Jer 17:16

3932 virgin state; Lk 2:35; Jer 3:4

4085 compress; Lk 6:38; Mi 6:15

Acts of the Apostles (51 from 20 books)

319 to make known; Act 7:13; Gen 45:1

4037 to remain about; Act 1:4; Gen 49:18

403 respite; Act 3:19; Ex 8:15

1826 to exit; Act 13:42; 17:15; 20:7; 27:43; Ex 28:35

2686 to deal subtly; Act 7:19; Ex 1:10

2141 to be well provide; Act 11:29; Lev 25:26,28,49

3147 to crack the whip; Act 22:25; Num 22:25

1268 to spread; Dt 29:26; Act 4:17

426 to investigate; Act 22:24,29; Jdg 6:29

5496 to lead by the hand; Act 9:8; 22:11; Jdg 16:26

5017 disturbance; Act 12:18; 19:23; 1Sa 5:9

3700 to see, behold, view; Act 1:3; 1Ki 8:8

1282 to saw through; 1Ch 20:3; Act 5:33; 7:54

196 exact, accurate, strict; Act 26:5; Est 4:5

1258 dialect; Act 1:19; 2:6,8; 21:40; 22:2; 26:14; Est 9:26

4844 to drink together; Act 10:41; Est 7:1

777 without eating; Job 24:6; Act 27:33

1098 sweet new wine; Act 2:13; Job 32:19

1315 to lay hands upon; Job 30:24; Act 5:30; 26:21

1566 at that place; Job 39:29; Act 21:3; 22:5

1569 utterly astonished; Job 7:7; Act 3:11

1851 prominence; Act 25:23; Job 39:28

4414 front rank; Act 24:5; Job 15:24

4792 to collect, gather; Act 8:2; Job 5:26

5002 appointed; Act 12:21; Job 12:5

3040 a harbor; Act 27:8,12; Ps 107:30

4308 foresee; Act 2:25; Ps 16:8

4782 to go down together; Act 25:5; Ps 49:17

5433 to snort, neigh; Act 4:25; Ps 2:1

1688 to put on board; Pr 4:11; Act 27:6

1962 nod assent; Act 18:20; Pr 26:24

3971 paternal; Act 22:3; 24:14; 28:17; Pr 27:10

4840 to be present with; Act 25:24; Pr 8:27

4935 suddenly; Act 24:4; Pr 13:23; 23:28

5492 to spend the winter; to be tossed by storm; Act 27:18;Pr 26:10

1278 to work hard; Ecc 10:9; Act 4:2; 16:18

827 daylight; Is 59:9; Act 20:11

3647 wholeness; Act 3:16; Is 1:6

374 to dissuade; Act 18:13; Jer 29:8

695 a silversmith; Jer 6:29; Act 19:24

1963 thought, thinking; Act 8:22; Jer 20:10

4631 the rigging of a ship; Act 27:19; Jer 27:18

556 to drive away, expel; Act 18:16; Eze 34:12

1634 to expire; Eze 21:7; Act 5:5,10; 12:23

1995 a turning towards; Act 15:3; So 7:10; Eze 47:7,11

3612 a building; Act 12:7; Eze 16:24

4843 to wrap around; Act 20:10; Eze 5:3

195 exactness; educated strictly; Act 22:3; Dan 7:16

5282 to be of opinion; Act 13:25; 25:18; 27:27; Dan 7:25

3333 call back; Act 7:14; 10:32; 20:17; 24:25; Hos 11:1,2

1530 rush in; Act 14:14; 16:29; Amos 5:19

Gospel of Luke

Gen, Ex, Lev, Nm, Dt, Jos, 2Sa, 1Ki, 2Ch, Ez, Neh, Job, Ps, Pr, Is, Jer, Mi

Acts of the Apostles

Gen, Ex, Lev, Nm, Dt, Jdg, 1Sa, 1Ki, 1Ch, Est, Job, Ps, Pr, Ecc, Is, Jer, Eze, Dan, Hos, Amos

Double hapax from 26 of the 39 books of the Septuagint

Copyrighted 2007

Tuesday, January 23, 2007

Abomination again

I briefly discussed what the Lucan Jesus could have meant in describing the conduct of the Pharisees as abomination. In reading Revelation I recognized that the author explains in three separate verses what he means by abomination. In chapter 21 verse 8 we read: “But as for the cowardly, the faithless, the polluted, as for murderers, fornicators, sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns with fire and sulphur, which is the second death.” Later in verse 27 we read: “But nothing unclean shall enter it, nor any one who practices abomination or falsehood, but only those who are written in the Lamb's book of life.” And finally in the verse 15 of the 22^nd chapter we read: “Outside are the dogs and sorcerers and fornicators and murderers and idolaters, and every one who loves and practices falsehood.”

Copyrighted 2007

Sunday, January 21, 2007

Precious stones in Revelation

The author of the Book of Revelation mentions a number of precious stones. What is interesting is that this list constitutes, perhaps, 15% of the hapax in this book.

271 amethyst; Rev 21:20; Ex 28:19; 39:12; Eze 28:13

969 beryl; Rev 21:20; Ex 39:13

2393 jaspar; Rev 4:3; 21:11,18,19; Ex 28:18; 39:11; Is 54:12; Eze 28:13

4552 sapphire; Rev 21:19; LXX

4556 the reddish precious stone sardius; Rev 4:3; Ex; Pr; Eze 28:13

4556.1 the reddish precious stone carnelian; Rev 21:20 no LXX

4557 the precious stone sardonyx; Rev 21:20; no LXX

4665 The emerald; Rev 21:19; Ex; Eze

5116 topaz; Rev 21:20; LXX

5192 hyacinth stone; Rev 21:20; LXX

5472 precious stone chalcedony; Rev 21:19; no LXX

5555 chrysolite; Rev 21:20; Ex; Eze

5556 precious stone of the yellow green color chrysoprase; Rev 21:20; no LXX

You will of course recognize that most of these precious stones are described in Exodus as being part of the robe of the High Priest.

Thursday, January 18, 2007

I been busy

Several legal matters have kept me busy writing pleadings and briefs. I have distracted myself by creating a list of hapax legomena that appear only once in a particular document. I have to agree that there is no value in creating such a list unless the information being assembled can be useful for the further analysis of the document being studied. Therefore, the Greek words I am collecting are more interesting. I will be blogging further on my new distraction.

Thursday, January 11, 2007

Ezra as a source for Luke

It is a generally accepted datum of New Testament scholarship that the Book of Ezra was not a source of quotations or allusions for any book in the New Testament.[i] I write to suggest that it was a source for Luke. This article will examine the Parable of the Unjust Steward and the controversy sayings of Chapter 16 sandwich between this and the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus.

My exposition of the Gospel of Luke would address Theophilus as if he had professed a lack of understanding of Christianity perhaps based on sacerdotal concerns.

Luke seems to emphasize contrasts, such as the thankful vs. thankless lepers, the repentant and unrepentant thieves, the Samaritan and the Pharisees, and the rich man and Lazarus. The author also contrasts high and low, proud and humble, and the rich and poor. This is a characteristic of the wisdom literature. If Luke is using wisdom literature as a model or source, one should expect to see parallelism, vivid words, examples from life, metaphors, comparisons and contrasts.

Contrasts are presented in a number of different forms and methods. For instance, Luke may place two words, phrases, concepts, incidents and/or individuals in juxtaposition to create comparisons and contrasts.[ii] When the outline is set forth in this manner, it is easy to see how the Book of Ezra could be a source.

Ezra was a priest and scribe, a direct descendant of Aaron through Eleazar (Ezra 7:1-5). His father was Seraiah, the last High Priest to serve in the First Temple (2 Kings 25:8-21). What we know about Ezra is found in Ezra chapters 7 to 10, and Nehemiah chapters 8 to 10, where he led the second group of exiles that returned from Babylon to Jerusalem. Ezra is the only person in the Bible described as “skilled in the law of Moses.”[iii]

Ezra was a man of extraordinary learning who educated his people. “For Ezra had set his heart to study the law of the LORD, and to do it, and to teach his statutes and ordinances in Israel” [Ezra 7:10]. Ezra is credited with reviving an interest in the study of scripture. Ezra led the reform of post-exilic Judaism.

The temple at Jerusalem had been rebuilt and dedicated but more priests were needed to carry on its services. There was a pressing need of men of God to act as teachers of the people. Therefore Ezra issued a second appeal to the Levites, sending them an urgent invitation to unite with his company. To emphasize the importance of quick action, he sent with his written plea several of his "chief men" and "men of understanding."[iv]

As a special precaution in safeguarding the treasure, Ezra “separated twelve of the chief of the priests” --men whose faithfulness and fidelity had been proved— “and weighed unto them the silver, and the gold, and the vessels, even the offering of the house of our God, which the king, and his counselors, and his lords, and all Israel there present, had offered.” The gifts for the temple also included 100 cors of wheat and 100 baths of olive oil. These men were solemnly charged to act as vigilant stewards over the treasure entrusted to their care. "Ye are holy unto the Lord," Ezra declared. Ezra also stated "the vessels are holy also; and the silver and the gold are a freewill offering unto the Lord God of your fathers. Watch ye, and keep them, until ye weigh them before the chief of the priests and the Levites, and chief of the fathers of Israel, at Jerusalem, in the chambers of the house of the Lord." 8:24, 25, 28, 29. Ezra appointed faithful officers to act as stewards. These people by the first century had become known as treasurers of the temple.

After Ezra and his company arrived in Jerusalem, Ezra was informed that some of the Jerusalem priests have married foreigners. Ezra directed that a genealogy be prepared of everyone. Apparently approximately 100 priest and 10 laymen had married foreigners. Ezra assembled the community, read the Book to them and directed that the 110 priests and laymen divorce their spouses forthwith. Ezra and his community believed that intermarriage resulting in children constituted a defilement of the “holy seed” that corrupted the holy land and had to be eliminated to protect the land of Israel.

Ezra and the “men of understanding” were scribes and teachers of the law. By the time of the Maccabees, they were linked to the Hasideans.[v] The Hasideans as advocates of Torah and covenant led Jewish resistance to Hellenism. Kampen concluded that it may be that the origin of Pharisaism is within the scribal circle of Hasidim. The Pharisees, like the pre-Maccabean party of scribes, assiduously cultivated a strictly legalistic piety, holding themselves aloof from the world.[vi] Josephus considered the Pharisees to be the most accurate interpreters of the laws. The name, Pharisees, means “separated ones.”

Before discussing the controversy sayings, it should be stated that Luke has contrasted the “men of understanding” of Ezra 8:16 with the lack of understanding in Luke 2:50; 8:10; 18:34 and 24:45; Acts 7:25; 28:26-27. There are several other examples in Luke-Acts that may be allusions to the Book of Ezra that have been overlooked. The following words, phrases and concepts appearing in the chapters of the Book of Ezra describing Ezra and his accomplishments can be found in Luke-Acts: “law of Moses”, Luke 2:22; 24:44; “set his face” may allude to “set his heart”[vii] and “chosen vessel,” Act 9:15 may allude to “You are holy to the LORD, and the vessels are holy.” The fact that there are a number of allusions in Luke-Acts to the Book of Ezra is confirmation that the allusions are intended as part of a common theme.

The first thing we realize about the controversy sayings of is that the response is directed to the Pharisees who had scoffed at Jesus. In Ezra 10:11, we read “separate yourselves from the peoples of the land and from the foreign wives.” In the four verses preceding the reaction of the Pharisees to what Jesus said in commenting on the Parable of the Unjust Steward, we read: “He who is faithful in a very little is faithful also in much; and he who is dishonest in a very little is dishonest also in much. If then you have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will entrust to you the true riches? And if you have not been faithful in that which is another's, who will give you that which is your own? No servant can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.” The word “faithful” appears four times.

In Ezra 9:2, we read “For they have taken some of their daughters to be wives for themselves and for their sons; so that the holy race has mixed itself with the peoples of the lands. And in this faithlessness the hand of the officials and chief men has been foremost.” Thus it appears that Luke has compared the “faithlessness of the officials and chief men” with the unjust steward and contrasted them with the faithful steward of Luke 12:42. Luke has also contrasted the 12 appointed by Ezra who weighted-in with the steward who was directed to give an account because of allegations of dishonesty. This word steward οἰκονόμος in the Parable of the Unjust Steward should probably be translated as “treasurer of the temple.”

When the Pharisees scoffed at the sayings of Jesus he responded with 4 verses: “But he said to them, "You are those who justify yourselves before men, but God knows your hearts; for what is exalted among men is an abomination in the sight of God. The law and the prophets were until John; since then the good news of the kingdom of God is preached, and every one enters it violently. But it is easier for heaven and earth to pass away, than for one dot of the law to become void. Every one who divorces his wife and marries commits adultery, and he who marries a woman divorced from her husband commits adultery.”

The last verse talks about divorce which is most interesting for this article because Ezra had directed about 110 Jewish men to divorce their wives. Jesus is addressing his comments to the Pharisees who like Ezra are skilled in the law and Jesus sees a dilemma that Ezra also faced. When two prohibitions seemingly conflict, which controls? Ezra said the prohibition on intermarriage controls. Jesus said the divorce and subsequent remarriage was tantamount to adultery. The penalty for adultery was death by stoning. Therefore Jesus addressed it differently and in so doing followed Malachi who rebukes Israel for profaning the Mosaic covenant (Mal 2:10-16). One example is the breaking of the marriage covenant by divorcing ("breaking faith with") the wives "of their youth" (v. 14).

In Ezra 9-10, intermarriage with foreigners is viewed as a defilement of the holy race and as unfaithfulness to God (9:2; 10:2, 10). Thus the Lucan Jesus has again contrasted the “unfaithfulness to God” with “breaking faith.” The Lucan Jesus talks about the faithful steward in Chapter 12 and says in effect, by the way unfaithful also means when an unfaithful husband commits adultery when he divorce and marries another.

The Pharisees, being skilled in the law, were certainly well versed in scripture and would recognize when Jesus used a rare word such as βάτους

[Lk 16:6] and that it only appeared in Ezra 7:22.[viii] This is purpose of the description of the two quantities of wheat and oil using the word βάτους and κόρους copied in Greek from Ezra with the same exact quantities. A κόρους was a Hebrew dry measure for grain of between 10-12 bushels. 100 cors of wheat was a large amount of wheat, representing the yield of about 100 acres. In Luke, these items represent either rent owed to the Temple or payment on loans made from the Temple. Luke alludes to Ezra because he wants us to realize that in both instances the intended recipient is the Temple. The second occurrence of an unusual word form in Luke 16:12 must have caused a reaction in that Luke used the word ἀλλοτρίῳ translated in Luke as belonging to another. Ezra used this same word translated in Ezra as “alien” seven times in Chapter 10 in addressing the problem of intermarriage. Thus the scene is set for the use of the word βδέλυγμα translated in Ezra and Luke 16:15 as abomination.

In Lk 16:15, Luke is using the same Greek word Ezra used in describing the intermarriage, “abomination.” In Ezra 9:1 we read, inter alia, “The people of Israel and their priests and the Levites have not separated themselves from the peoples of the lands with their abominations, from the Canaanites.” In using the word, abominations, Ezra was asserting that intermarriage was absolutely the worst thing that the people could do. Luke has equated intermarriage with unspecified certain conduct of the Pharisees using the same Greek word, βδέλυγμα . Actually Ezra has a compound word containing this word with letters added at the end translated as “their abominations.” Neither Plummer, Marshall nor Bock have recognized that βδέλυγμα is used in Ezra 9:1.[ix] This word is usually used to denote detestation amounting to idolatry and nothing has indicated that idolatry is in issue in the Gospel of Luke but Acts does have a minor idolatry theme. However, Ezra uses this word in conjunction with intermarriage. This would not be significant but for the last verse in the four verse response to the Pharisees.

The divorce verse now has new significant. What is it?

Each of these examples of allusions to Ezra depends on a single word. Birger Gerhardsson discussed the use of a catch-word as a memory device where the use of the word would allude to a passage of scripture. He gives the example of the “thorn-bush” periscope in Exodus 3:1 and Luke 20:37 implying Luke was aware of this memory technique and used it in his gospel. These examples seem to suggest that Gerhardsson is correct. Those in the audience had followed in the traditions of the men of learning and knew their scripture so well they knew that Jesus had alluded by word and concept to the Book of Ezra.

Luke has used the Book of Ezra as a source.[x]

Copyrighted 2006

[i] Thomas L. Brodie in The Birthing of the New Testament: The Intertextual Development of the New Testament Writings (Paperback - Jun 6, 2006) has suggested that Ezra was a source for chapter 3 and 4 of the Gospel of Luke.

[ii] Compare these examples. Witness the contrasts between "fell" and "added" in the expressions "there fell of the people that day about three thousand men" (Ex. 32:28), and "the same day there were added unto them about three thousand souls" (Acts 2:41)—the only occasions where "about three thousand" is used in Scripture. Similar too is this example: "there were with him about four hundred men" (1 Sam. 22:2), and there "rose up Theudas, boasting himself to be somebody; to whom a number of men, about four hundred, joined themselves" (Acts 5:36). In 1 Sam. 28:24, we read of the "fat calf" while in Luke 15:23, we are told of "the fatted calf’ which was killed for the prodigal son!

[iii] Ezra 7:6 RSV

[iv] Ezra 7:28, 8:16

[v] 1 Maccabees 7

[vi] Josephus, War, II., viii. 14; Ant., XVIL, ii. 4; Life, xxxviii.; Acts xxiii. 3, xxvi. 5; Phil. iii. 5

[vii] But see Gen. 31:21; Isa. 50:7; Jer. 21:10; 44:12; Ezek. 6:2; 13:17; 14:8; 15:5; Dan 11:17-18).

[viii] In the Parable of the Lost Coin, Luke used the word “drachma” to identify the coin, a word which appears only in Ez 2:69; 8:27; and Lk 15:8,9, perhaps setting the stage for the use of βάτους.

[ix] The Lexical Concordance for the Septuagint and NT includes this word as being utilized by both Ezra and Luke.

[x] My good friend Lee Dahn noted that when the unjust steward had the people rewrite their indebtedness, the one initially owed “100 baths of oil” while the second person owed “100 kors of wheat” that these phrases appear in Ezra 7:22 using the same Greek words as appear in Luke 16:6-7. He also reminded me that Ezra directed the mass divorces.

Tuesday, January 09, 2007

Step Progression Method

Krodel claims that “Luke never says everything at once, but expands and unfolds earlier themes as he moves step by step from one episode to another.”

Luke is criticized, for recalling in his account of the sermon in Nazareth the healings in Capernaum, even though Luke has not previously mentioned any healings by Jesus. This is said to be evidence of his carelessly copying another gospel account. Eckhard Reinmuth has demonstrated, based on his detailed study of Liber biblicarum antiquitatum of Pseudo-Philo, that Luke, in recalling material not previously mentioned, is using an established Jewish literary technique.

“On the basis of observable similarities in linguistic usage, Reinmuth rejects the view that recurring formulaic expressions in Luke's work are simply mimesis of LXX Greek. Reinmuth contends the usage may reflect contemporary Jewish usage. Like the author of Liber biblicarum antiquitatum, Luke uses biblical citations and direct quotations to frame and advance the narrative. Both writers share the same technique of recalling narrative material not previously mentioned. Analogous theological conceptions are imbedded in the general narrative structure. Among them are ideas about Israel's election, God's providential plan, and the role of narrative in describing how this plan unfolds historically.”

Reinmuth has, inter alia, demonstrated the importance of Jewish sources for understanding the theology and structure of Luke-Acts. The most important preliminary finding is that Luke, in recalling material not previously mentioned, is using an established Jewish literary technique.

I return to this matter which I addressed last April 24^th to note that Nahum Sarna published “The Anticipatory Use of Information as a Literary Feature of the Genesis Narratives.” Sarna provided a number of examples in the Hebrew text such Genesis 9:18, 22 and 13:10 where the phrase “This was before the LORD destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah” appears to be an added insertion. Sarna states that these examples of “introducing a parenthetic note not immediately germane” are part of a literary technique of the author. These literary features are retained by the Septuagint.

Copyrighted 2007

Tuesday, January 02, 2007

Give an account

This directive to the unjust steward to “give an account” is reminiscent of the instructions of Ezra to the twelve. This directive is also comparable the demand required prior to initiating legal proceedings in a collection case. In this instance it appears the unjust steward falsified an account which, under the modern criminal laws, is one of the elements of a theft by a fiduciary. The falsification was necessary to conceal missing funds. What is missing is that the rich man is not the real owner. The high priestly families owned and controlled a lot of real estate. In the original scheme of things, the priests were not to own any land but were supposed to be solely dependent upon contributions. What the high priests did was seize the land of persons who had defaulted on their loans obtained from the Temple. In the process the high priests took for themselves the collateral that should have been owned by the Temple. This economic fraud committed has never been fully developed within the context of the Lucan parables.

The crime of a fiduciary falsifying an account is a modern concept. When money was transferred to a person who was supposed to transfer it to a third person and the person in the middle stole the money it was not viewed as a crime but a business problem to be sorted out in civil court. In one Pennsylvania case cited by the Model Penal Code draftsmen as an example of the confusion in this area, an employer-defendant was acquitted of fraudulent conversion because his failure to pay a grocer on behalf of employees who had authorized him to deduct from their wages the amounts of their grocery bills was not seen as involving any money technically belonging to the employees. Hence, the only wrongdoing found by the Pennsylvania court was civil breach of contract. In fact it is still viewed this way when the executor of an estate or trustee steal a little bit of money. The Pennsylvania statute and the statutes of other jurisdictions adopting the Model Penal Code now criminalize conduct where the actors in question are “merely conduits for the transmission of money to persons designated by the real owner of the money.” With this background it easy to understand why first century people did not consider the steward of the Parable of the Unjust steward to be walking away with the temple treasury since he was stealing it from the people making the donations and or stealing the sums being used to pay rent or to pay off the temple loans made from the sacred money.

There was a surprising response to the conduct of the unjust steward in falsifying his account. The verb ἐπαινέω expresses praise for the manager’s prudence. It also reflects the official act of approval or ratification of the account. We are shocked that the master in the words of the RSV “commended the dishonest steward for his shrewdness.” The approval of the account makes sense if the “steward” was really the one of treasurers of the temple and the goods belonged to the temple. The Lucan Jesus understood and perhaps the phrase “and he who is dishonest in a very little is dishonest also in much” is best understood in this context.

This parable may in fact represent one of the strongest attacks on the temple establishment issued by the Lucan Jesus. However, it is not until we reach the Lucan Parable of the Wicked Tenants do we appreciate against whom the attack is directed. It is, like the original Song of the Vineyard, directed against those who have accumulated excessive wealth at the expense of the peasants. These individuals are identified by Luke as the chief priests and scribes, the religious aristocracy of the Temple.

Copyrighted 2006